The following was written in a previous
semester. The material covered in a lecture this semester may not be
identical to that covered on a specific day last semester, but taken as a whole
these lecture notes cover the same material that is covered this semester.
Today we discussed chapter 13. The
first part of the chapter deals with the origin and dispersal of modern humans
(Homo sapiens sapiens). There are three major
models concerning the origin of modern humans.
1. The Complete Replacement (Out of Africa) model. This model
states that modern humans evolved first in Africa and then spread out and
replaced populations of archaic Homo sapiens elsewhere. In other
words, this model suggests a speciation event. If this were the case,
then we should be calling archaic Homo sapiens something else, because
they were not members of our species. Two lines of evidence support this
model. First, there are modern looking skulls from Klasies
River Mouth and Border Cave in South Africa which date to between 120,000 -
100,000 years ago. Second, studies of mitochondrial DNA of women around
the world suggest that we all have a common ancestor around 200,000 years ago.
This is also known as the "Eve" hypothesis. Studies of the Y
chromosome complement this view, since there is not a lot of variability in the
DNA of the Y chromosome.
2. The Partial Replacement Model. This says that modern humans evolved
first in
3. The Regional Continuity (Multiregional Evolution) Model.
This model argues that different populations of archaic Homo sapiens
gradually evolved into modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens.
With this model, there would have to be gene flow (mating) between
populations. Analysis of skeletal material from
Pages 321-328 present evidence relating to the above three models. Look
these pages over but don't get bogged or try to remember too many details in
these pages. You do not need to remember all the illustrative material.
The second part of the chapter concerns technology and art
in the Upper Paleolithic. The Upper Paleolithic (35,000 - 10,000 B.P.
(B.P. = before present) is the cultural period associated with modern humans in
.
We discussed chapter 14, "Understanding the Past: Archaeological Approaches". Archaeologists do both survey and excavation. To illustrate archaeological excavation, I showed slides of my own work. Archaeologists study artifacts, features, and ecofacts. Features are non-portable evidence of human activity. A hearth would be an example of a feature. Ecofacts refer to plant and animal remains. Some ecofacts are recovered by flotation, a water separation technique. Of particular interest is the context in which an artifact, feature, or ecofact is found. Archaeologists record the location or provenience of material on a site and can later determine that location by examining a catalog number on the material. In a well organized archaeological collection, the researcher should be able to determine not only where something was found on a site, but what was found with it.
Ethnoarchaeology, ethnographic
analogy, and experimental archaeology are other approaches to understanding the
past. The manufacture of stone tools is one type of experimental
archaeology that is very popular.
In chapter 9 we talked about relative techniques of dating (stratigraphy) and chronometric forms of dating (Potassium-argon). Chapter 14 expands this discussion. Radiocarbon dating is a chronometric technqiue based on the decay of 14 C. The half life of this isotope is 5,730 years. Thus, organic material that is that old will have only half the radiocarbon that living material has. The upper limit of this method is about 70,000 years, so radiocarbon cannot be used to date early hominid remains. Dendrochronology or tree ring dating is used where wood is preserved and where a distinctive pattern of tree ring growth can be determined.
We did a typology exercise. Some students felt that there were many types represented in the sample provided. They are "splitters". Others thought only a few types were represented. They are "lumpers". The important point is not the number of types, but the fact that types are abstractions from reality.
There is a lot of other material discussed in chapter 14. Don't worry about it. Just know the material mentioned above.
We discussed the first part (pp.373-388) of Chapter 15,
Holocene Hunters and Gatherers. Around 30,000 years ago during the
Pleistocene, Siberia and Northeastern Asia were inhabited by modern humans who
were culturally adapted to survive in a cold, harsh environment. During
periods of glaciation, the Bering Strait which
separates northeastern Asia from Alaska was dry land, an area called Beringia. Sometime between 25,000 and 12,000 years
ago northern hunter-gatherer peoples must have crossed from Asia to the
Americas. It is generally thought that they traveled on land, but it is
possible that they traveled along the coast in boats. During periods of
lowered sea level during the Pleistocene, western
There is evidence from the site of Monte Verde in southern Chile that people were that far south in the Americas by 13,000 years ago. Closer to home, Meadowcroft Rock Shelter in southwest Pennsylvania is a site occupied by early Americans at least by 14,000 years ago. Though the dating of both Monte Verde and Meadowcroft have been questioned, the majority of investigators now accept these sites as evidence for people in the Americas prior to the well known Paleoindians.
Paleoindian cultures are
considered to be early Holocene in age. We discussed three Paleoindian
cultures in class: Clovis, Folsom, and Plano. Large, bifacially
worked Clovis points have been found embedded in mammoth bones.
Folsom points have been found embedded in the bones of
long horned bison. Some of these animals may have been stampeded over
cliffs or trapped in canyons.
We continued with Chapter 15. Note that you are not
responsible for the entire chapter (see syllabus).
Trends characteristic of the following Mesolithic period
in
The Mesolithic period culture known as the Natufian is located in the Near East. During the early Holocene, the area where wild cereal grasses grew expanded to include areas of nut trees. Instead of moving from lowland stands of wild wheat and barley to upland nut resources, Natufians were able to stay in one spot and harvest both kinds of resources. Exploitation of these resources is revealed through flotation, a water separation recovery technique discussed earlier. The presence of pit houses, cemeteries, and grinding stones all point to sedentism. Mesolithic adaptations like that of the Natufians help us understand the early stages of farming. In this part of the Near East it is clear that sedentary villages came before farming villages. In some other areas, the spread of farming enabled populations to become sedentary.
Chapter 16 deals with the development of
farming. It is important to know that the term "Neolithic"
refers to farming. The "Neolithic Revolution" had important
consequences which we will go over next time. The domestication of plants
and animals was an evolutionary process, not a one time event. It
occurred in many different areas of the world but we will only focus on this
process in the Near East and
We can generally recognize domesticated seeds by an
increase in size, restriction of seed dispersal mechanisms, and loss
of husks and other protective devices. Animal domesticates can be
recognized by changed skeletal structure (sheep lose their horns), change in
size (cattle get smaller), or changed demography (increased number of immature
males slaughtered). A change in the geographical distribution of both
plants and animals often signals domestication.
Farming started independently in a number
of different areas. We just have time to look at the development of
farming in the
We do not know exactly why people started farming.
One idea is that with settled village life, population increased and people
needed to get more food from the area in which they lived. In the Near
East, cereal grains provided "second choice" alternatives to meat and
fruit. Cereal grains could also be stored and eaten during periods when
resources were scarce. Wild stands of cereal grains may have been
expanded and protected, or artificially reproduced in fields. Bt 7,000
B.C., Neolithic farmers in the
We saw a number of slides of the Neolithic sites of
Jericho (Israel) and Catal Huyuk
(Turkey). These were relatively large Neolithic sites. Other
Neolithic sites were smaller. Farming gradually diffused from the Middle
East into Europe. It took a long time, because plants adapted to long,
hot, dry summers do not do well in areas like northern
We took a quick look at the development of farming in
Farming had some negative environmental consequences. These include deforestation, soil erosion, depletion of soil nutrients, salinization (with later irrigation), and overgrazing. Crop pests multiplied as did weeds. In tropical areas, stagnant pools of water become breeding grounds for mosquitoes which spread malaria. Only a few species are domesticated, and the changed ecosystems often result in the extinction of many species, resulting in diminished biodiversity. Domesticated species tend to become genetically homogeneous, rendering them susceptible to disease, drought , and pests.
Despite the above, farming expanded at the expense of hunting and gathering. In the last century, hunters and gatherers were found only in environments in which farming was not possible (too cold, too dry). While all people have some manner of spiritual beliefs, farmers tend to be concerned with farming and have rituals to ensure crop success as well as thanksgiving for a harvest. Neolithic societies often have religious structures in which community rituals probably took place.
In general, pre-agricultural diets were low in saturated fat and salt, but high in complex carbohydrates, animal protein and fiber. The capacity to store fat was probably advantageous to our distant hunting and gathering ancestors, but today this poses a health risk for many people in the world who lead a sedentary life style and have a fat-rich diet.
Farming populations generally have more dental caries as a result of a starchy diet. Those populations in close association with domestic animals were at risk for zoonoses - diseases transmitted to humans from vertebrates. Examples of such diseases include rabies, tetanus, influenza (swine flu), T.B., and AIDS, the latter probably from people who ate chimp meat (bush meat) infected with a chimp version of the disease. Some diseases require a large population if the virus or bacterium is to survive (measles, smallpox) as it needs always to be infecting a new host.
At best, farming has been of mixed benefit to humans, but it enables many more of us to be alive today. Human population continues to increase at an alarming rate. Ultimately, this is a consequence of the Neolithic Revolution
We then began a look at civilization, the subject of chapter 17. By civilization we mean a complex society, one with a number of characteristics which differentiates it from Neolithic societies. One of these characteristics of civilization is agricultural intensification. Examples of this include irrigation, use of a plow, and used of raised fields (fertile plots built up out of the water). These require more effort, but result in greater agricultural returns.
In addition to agricultural intensification, civilization
is often marked by cities (urbanism). Cities are large, dense population
centers, but they have additional characteristics. Many non-agricultural
activities occur in cities, and cities are marked by economic
interdependence. One cannot be self sufficient and live in a city.
There are formal organizations within cities as well as impersonal
contacts. You do not necessarily know everyone you come into contact with
in a city.
Friday,
April 25
Civilizations are also marked by a diversification of labor (true division of labor). Many ancient Old World civilizations are termed "Bronze Age". Bronze is an alloy (mixture) of copper and tin. First the ores had to be mined, then the ore smelted. Copper and tin ores are not necessarily found near one another, so ingots of each metal have to be brought together. Then a craftsmen has to heat them to a high temperature in order to fashion a bronze artifact. All of this requires labor specialization.
Civilizations are also marked by a state level organization (central government). Governments must provide for the common defense, raise taxes (often in the form of labor service or agricultural products), and maintain internal order. City planning is evident in many early urban centers, as are monumental public works like pyramids and walls. Forms of record keeping (including writing) arose to facilitate economic and organizational needs. Writing is also important because it transcends time and space and allows for the accumulation of knowledge.
It is commonly assumed that most hunters and gatherers and Neolithic farmers were egalitarian. That is, they were essentially equal in terms of access to resources. With civilization we see the development of inequalities. Civilizations are marked by social stratification. Evidence of this is apparent from burials, dwelling size, and written documents.
Factors suggested as important in the development of
civilizations include irrigation systems, trade networks, environmental and
social circumscription, and religion. Today, most investigators link
these factors in a systems approach. This is a multivariate approach,
meaning that more than one factor or variable is involved. A simplified
multivariate explanation provided by our text suggests that intensive
agricultural practices led to the production of a surplus. This surplus
was then manipulated by managers or spiritual leaders in various ways which
promoted trade, social and economic stratification, true division of labor, and
population growth.
The world's first civilization was known as
The date for the beginning of Sumerian civilization is
somewhat arbitrary. Our text takes 3,000 B.C. as the start. By this
time, the city of
Bronze metallurgy, wheeled carts, draft animals,
the plow, and sailing boats all are found in
This class was a review of material
since the last exam. We have covered three basic ways of life: hunting
and gathering, farming (the Neolithic), and civilization (complex society).
Hunters and gatherers included Upper Paleolithic peoples of Europe and Paleoindians of North America. Natufian
hunters and gatherers in the Middle East focused on cereal grains which were
later domesticated by Neolithic peoples in the region. In general,
hunters and gatherers are characterized by a low population density and group
size of around 25. Farmers have a higher population density and may live
in farming villages of hundreds of people. The highest population
densities are achieved by civilizations with people living in cities of 40,000
or more inhabitants. Such urban centers require an efficient system of
food production and transportation. While hunter-gatherers and farmers
are largely self sufficient, people living in cities are not. People in
cities generally have different occupations. One does not see much labor
specialization in Neolithic times. Hunter-gatherer and Neolithic
societies are egalitarian, while civilizations typically have social
classes. All peoples have religious or spiritual beliefs and religion may
mark life transitions (rites of passage) and may be used in curing
ceremonies. While hunters bring spiritual beliefs to the hunt, farmers
bring spiritual beliefs to the planting and harvesting of crops. In
civilization, religious beliefs often focus on interpersonal relationships and
morality. Just as farming changed human's relationship with nature, so
life in cities changed interpersonal relationships. Many religions
associated with great civilizations have something like the "golden
rule": "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you".
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The following is not covered Spring 2003