Study Guide for Exam 3
Sociology 100: Introduction to Sociology
Zhang Jie, Ph.D.
Department of Sociology
SUNY College at Buffalo
716-878-6425
zhangj@bscmail.buffalostate.edu
http://faculty.buffalostate.edu/zhangj
Chapter 11: Gender
Definitions
Sex: the biological differences between males and females
Gender: the culturally transmitted differences between males and females
Gender role: the pattern of attitudes and behaviors that a society expects of
its members because of their gender
Facts of Gender Inequalities
men vs. women
aggressive
faster, bigger
heavier
pursuer
pursued
initiate interactions
initiate touch and talk
breadwinner
homemaker
more education
higher education and better jobs
Since it exists in most societies if not all, it must have its biological basis
Other Facts of Inequality
From languages:
the man, the human, he, chairman, chairperson
From Religions:
Adam and Eve
Today’s situation:
Study on college women (essay)
Biological Foundations
If it is universal, it must be functional and have its reasons
Men mature more slowly and die earlier than women due to their lack of a second
X chromosome
Men -- XY and women – XX
Child-bearing differences
Society has broadened the differences
Gender roles in the U.S
Traditional—women are home-makers; men are breadwinners.
Men in working and lower classes are more traditional
In the U.S. there are stereotypes and expectations about how men and women
should behave.
Many people consciously reject these roles but often tend to behave
traditionally.
e.g.: men opening doors for women
Sexism
Sexism—The belief that women are inferior to men
Women tend to be in a no-win situation.
If the are compassionate and sensitive they are seen
as being too feminine.
If they are aggressive and assertive they are seen as being too masculine.
Sexism leads to inequality through discrimination and gender role
socialization.
Sexism Facts
The Family:
Education:
Religion: Sexism is found in all major religions
Economy: for each dollar an American makes, a woman makes only 59 cents
Politics: Only 10% of the US Congress seats are occupied by women.
Environments: sexual harassment
Gender Inequalities in Education
Education—American women have made impressive gains in education, especially at
university level.
Still inequality from preschool to high school
Girls receive less attention than boys
The higher the education a women has, the less traditional she is in gender
roles
Feminism: Fighting Back
Feminism—the belief that men and women should be equal.
Originally a movement in the 19th century, feminism achieved major
breakthroughs for women in equal pay and discrimination legislation in the
1960s and 70s.
Today, most young women see little conflict between being a feminist and being
feminine.
Radical Feminism
Radical feminists
They hate the social structure where men dominate and some
reject marriage
SCUM -- Society for Cutting Up Men
WITCH -- Women's International Terrorist Conspiracy from
Hell
They think all the inequalities were man-made
What have they missed?
Issues to be discussed
Miss America
Cover girls
Cosmetics (appearance),
Prostitution\
Raping
Pornography
Men married older than women
Chapter 13: Age and Elderly
Aging
Old age doesn’t lead to senility.
Wisdom and insight grow with old age.
Although older people may be slower, studies show that the quality of job
performance improves with age.
Older people conform more to the world they live in.
Gerontology: the scientific study of old age
What speeds up the process of aging?
Exposure to sun
Lack of exercise
Social isolation
Lack of mental activity
Rigid routines
Low satisfaction with life
Characteristics of Ageing
Crystalline intelligence (wisdom in philosophy, language, music, and painting)
will increase as age goes up
Fluid intelligence (ability of abstract logic, math, physical sciences) will
decrease as age goes up
Old people lose their hearing and visual abilities but not their crystalline
intelligence.
Age prejudice and discrimination
Age is used to judge someone regardless of their personal characteristics.
Common beliefs are that older people are set in their ways and old fashioned.
Often older people are patronized and treated like children.
However, older people are a powerful political force that politicians try to
woo.
Modern and Traditional Societies on Ageing
Industrialized societies vs. Traditional societies
In traditional societies: the old enjoy higher status,
their knowledge and skills are useful
China: old people are dominant and respected
U.S.A.: old people are discriminated minority (New York City)
Chapter 14: Economy
The Economy
Industrialization—250 years ago, mechanization of industry changed society
forever
The nature of work
Demographic changes
Human relations
Values of society
Postindustrial world—economy dominated by high technology. May provide greater
wealth and freedom in developed countries but increases poverty and
unemployment in developing countries unable to catch up.
Capitalism
Capitalism—based on private ownership of property and competition in producing
and selling goods.
The U.S. is a capitalist country yet the government manages the economy by
levying taxes and controlling the money supply.
All economies are mixed economies having elements of socialism and capitalism.
Socialism
Socialism— (1) public ownership of the means of production, (2) central
planning, (3) the distribution of goods without a profit motive.
A central committee decides supply and demand.
It is designed to eliminate competition.
Everyone works for the government.
Socialism and Capitalism
Churchill:
The vice of capitalism is the unequal distribution of blessings,
The virtue of socialism is the equal distribution of miseries
Chapter 15: Politics
American Political System
The three branches of power: a unique invention in human
civilization (John Locke)
1. executive --
the president
2. legislative --
congress
3. judiciary –
supreme court
Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely
Big Corporations
Monopoly—one company controls a whole industry.
0.1% of all companies in the U.S. own 88% of all business income.
Can lead to higher prices, reduction in investment, and less competition.
Government supports big businesses with loans and tax breaks.
Huge multinationals often have a negative effect on society in developing
countries.
Politics Definitions
Politics:
The type of human interaction that involves one party acquiring and exercising
power over the other.
State:
A political institution that regulates conflict and allocates resources among
the people.
Government:
A small group of people who run the affairs of the state (president, congress,
and supreme court).
Why politics? The scarcity of valued resources
Power
Power—the ability to control others, even against their will.
Coercion—illegitimate power that people do not accept as just.
Influence—legitimate power by controlling others behavior through persuasion.
Authority—legitimate power institutionalized through organizations like the
government.
Types of Authority
Traditional authority—based on custom and tradition.
Charismatic authority— based on an individual’s outstanding traits, which
attract followers.
Legal authority—based on explicit rules and procedures put in writing.
U.S. Politics
Socialization plays a large part in how we participate in the political
process.
Social class plays a leading role in shaping attitudes towards politics.
Americans tend to be ideological conservatives (opposed to big government and
believe in free enterprise) yet are also operational liberals (support big
government in providing services to the public).
U.S. has huge voter apathy. Only half of eligible voters go to the polls.
Social Diversity in Politics
Native Americans—only ethnic group to have been kept on reservations. Political
influence is limited.
African Americans—the most successful minority politically.
Mexican Americans—very liberal and becoming more organized.
Asian Americans—increasingly influential though still facing discrimination.
Who Governs Us?
Pluralist view—political leaders derive power from citizens.
Elitist view—the masses are exploited by a small, select elite.
Marxist view—power comes from capitalists who manipulate the masses.
In the U.S. the Pluralist view is probably true for domestic political matters.
The Elitist and Marxist views are probably true for military and foreign matters.
Terrorism
Terrorists use violence to try to destabilize or topple a government they are
dissatisfied with.
Terrorists are self-styled leaders with little public support.
Most terrorist leaders are young, affluent and well-educated.
Terrorists can be defeated on three fronts: militarily, politically, and
culturally.
Chapter 16: The Family
Social Institutions
Sets of widely shared beliefs, norms, or procedures to satisfy people's basic
needs:
Family, Education, Religion, Economy, Politics
The Five Major Social Institutions
The Family: basic and smallest cell of society; regulation of sexuality;
socialize new members of society; five functions.
Education: to impart knowledge, skills, and values of society; plays the most
important role of transmitting social values.
Religion: understand human life, especially human social life; foster social
integration.
The Economy: develop a better life for people; make it possible the production
and distribution of goods and services.
Politics: regulate conflicts and allocate resources to ensure social order;
keep balance of powers; keep society in order by using government.
Functions of the Family
1. sexual
regulation: confine sex to marriage to minimize competition and to keep social
stability
2. reproduction:
(can be done without the family)
3. socialization:
for the new members (can be done in orphanage)
4. economic
cooperation: house keeper and breadwinner; division of labor
5. emotional
security: in primary relationship
Conflict Theory of the Family
Marriage reflects the unequal relationships of the genders in society as a
whole.
Englels wrote that men will dominate women whenever
production outside the home is more valuable than household labor.
Family is an agent of inequality. The family is the principal institution where
the dominance of men over women has been expressed; exploitation of women (wife
$40,000 a year).
Women are considered to be a piece of property in a typical wedding in this
society
Families
Family—consists of people who consider themselves related by blood, marriage,
or adoption.
Family of orientation—the family in which an individual grows up.
Family of Procreation—the family formed when a couple has their first child.
Nuclear and extended families are common in Western societies.
Marriage
Marriage—a group’s approved mating arrangements, usually marked by a ritual.
Arranged marriage—common in traditional societies
Mate selection—each society establishes norms to govern which partners are most
suitable.
Endogamy—people should marry within their own group.
Exogamy—people must marry outside their group.
Monogamy vs. Polygamy
monogamy: there is serial monogamy
polygamy:
Polygyny
polyandry
Dating and Love
Traditionally dating in the U.S. was very formal and
male-driven.
Today dating is much more spontaneous.
In the U.S., love is the most important factor when deciding who to marry.
Homogamy—marrying someone with social characteristics similar to one’s
own. Birds of a feather flock together.
Opposites attract
Divorce
About half of the Americans who marry now will
eventually get a divorce. Why?
Decreased social disapproval of divorce
Increased individualism
Higher expectations about quality of marriage
Increased focus on love
Better opportunities and services for divorced people
Divorce does not reject the idea of marriage, only the rejection of a specific
partner.
Changes in the U.S. Family
Today less than 25% of families are nuclear.
More common to find families with both parents working and single-parent
families
Blended families—stepfamilies; 1/3 of all Americans are members
Other Lifestyles
Staying single—more people are staying single because social pressure to get
married has declined.
Living together—works like a trial marriage
Gay/lesbian marriages—a number of cities have a domestic partnership agreement
so gay couples can gain family benefits from employers, etc.
Chapter 17: Education
Academic Achievement
James Coleman and Christopher Jencks (1972): only 2-3% of academic achievement
is explained by school variables (quality of teachers, fertilities, curriculum,
and budget), while 50% of the variance is explained by family variables
(marital status of parents, intactness of the family, SES, parents' education,
and etc.)
Education reforms and trends
Head start—a program aimed to prepare poor, disadvantaged children for
kindergarten. Definite long-term benefits.
Vouchers—aims to create competition amongst schools. Results are inconclusive.
Homeschooling—huge rise in number of homeschoolers. Mixed success.
Lifelong learning—many more adults are going back to school to gain new
qualifications.
Diversity in U.S. Education
Native American were forced to abandon traditional teaching and even today face
discrimination.
In spite of legislation, African Americans are still more likely to go to
different schools than whites.
Hispanic Americans are more likely to drop out of school than other groups.
Asian Americans have the highest educational achievement of any group.
Chapter 18: Religion
Definition of Religion: Durkheim
Religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices regarding sacred things
that unites its adherents into a single moral community.
Major Theories of Religion
Durkheim: Religion as society
Marx: Religion as the people's opium
Weber: Religion as source of social change
Religion in the United States
95% of Americans believe in God
90% pray
Over 280 religious denominations
At 60%, Protestants are the largest group
Only a small minority regularly attend religious services
Most attend church for social rather than
religious reasons
Why Religious?
1. I believe there is God governing all of
us.
2. My parents are religious, and I don't
have choice.
3. Many things can't be explained by
science.
4. I am concerned about the after-life.
5. I want to socialize with other people .
Functions of Relgion
1. Support, consolation, or relief from
anxiety and fear.
2. Social control, social integration,
less crimes.
3. Socialization, and etc.
Religious affiliations in the USA
Protestants
60%
Catholics
25%
Atheists or Agnostics 9%
Other religions
4%
Jews
2%
Diversity in U.S. Religion
Generally, the higher the social class the more likely people are to attend
church and Bible study groups.
But belief in God is more widespread among the poor than the rich.
Religious involvement accelerates after the age of 25.
Minorities try to keep own religions, though younger members often convert to
other religions.
Cults
A cult is a religious group that professes a new
belief system, rejects society and whose members are devoted to their leader.
Many young people join because these cults provide a community similar to an
idealized family full of love and care.
Over 90% of all those who join a cult return home within two years.
American Islam
Most U.S. Muslims are not of Arab origin. In fact, a large majority of Arab
Americans are Christian.
Muslims follow a strict code of ethics and diet.
There is conflict between Muslim and Western culture though U.S. Muslims are
generally more tolerant and resistant to fundamentalism than in other Muslim
societies.
Church and State
Legally, the church and state must be kept separate.
The U.S. has no official religion.
In reality the State often gets involved in religion
e.g.: prohibiting Mormons from having more than one wife
Civil religion—includes faith in the American way of life, freedom, equality,
etc. Also includes belief in a personal, nonreligious god.
Global Analysis of Religion
Theism—defines the sacred as one or more supernatural beings
e.g.: Christianity, Islam
Ethicalism—ascribe sacredness to moral principles
e.g.: Buddhism
Animism—a belief that spirits residing in humans, animals and plants can be
manipulated to serve human ends
e.g.: shamanism