Study Guide for Exam 2
Sociology 100: Introduction to Sociology
Zhang Jie, Ph.D.
Department of Sociology
SUNY College at Buffalo
716-878-6425
zhangj@bscmail.buffalostate.edu
http://faculty.buffalostate.edu/zhangj
Chapter 6: Groups
Chapter Six
Groups and Organizations
Groups
A Social Aggregate —a group that shares the same physical space but does not
interact.
A Social Category —consists of people who have something in common but do not
interact with one another.
A Social Group —consist of people who think of themselves as belonging together
and interact with one another.
A Social Group
A collection of people who
1. share some characteristics
2. interact with one another
3. have some feeling of unity
Primary and Secondary Groups
Primary groups: close people such as family, neighbors, and close friends, who
know each other personally, and there is emotional relationship
Secondary groups: people do not necessarily know each other personally, and
there is formal relationship
Primary & Secondary Groups
Primary Groups—provide face to face interaction
e.g. families, friends
Their values and attitudes become fused into our identity.
Secondary Groups —little face-to-face interaction
e.g: salesclerks and customers
Relate to each other in terms of a particular role.
In-Groups and Out-groups
In-groups—groups toward which we are strongly tied.
Out-groups—groups of which we are not a member of.
Members make themselves look different from other groups.
Members develop negative stereotypes of other groups.
Members compete with other groups.
Reference Groups
Reference groups—the groups we use as standards to evaluate our behavior.
People imitate the members in their reference groups.
Do not have to be a member of a group to use it as your reference group (e.g.
comparing yourself with a professional athlete).
Group Leadership
A leader—a combination of these 3 styles is found in
the same person, with one trait more dominant.
Instrumental—keeps the group moving toward its goals.
Expressive—tries to gain consensus, makes sure everyone is happy.
Laissez-faire—highly permissive.
Group Conformity
Group leaders are allowed to deviate from their society’s norms—idiosyncrasy
credit.
However, group members are expected to go along with the majority.
Groupthink—Members maintain a consensus to the extent of ignoring the truth.
Group Size
Large groups bring with them a diffusion of responsibility.
The smaller the group, the more informal it remains.
As the group
grows
in size, members will
break into
smaller
groups.
Social Networks
Web of social relationships that link members or groups together (in which
people directly or indirectly know each other).
e.g. a friendship, a business transaction, expressions
of feeling
Acts as a support system for physical and mental well-being.
Can place many demands on our time and personal resources (could be of negative
effect).
Chapter 7: Bureaucracy and Formal Organizations
Formal Organizations
Businesses, colleges, hospitals
Setting and achieving goals are paramount
Tasks are assigned to workers with different skills
Power is exerted from higher to lower participants
Forms of Organizations
Bureaucracy:
scientific management to maximize efficiency
Collectivism:
human relations (friendship, satisfaction); Non-economic rewards such as
friendship play an important role in determining workers’ satisfactions.
The human relations model is the most successful in Japan
Bureaucracies
Can be efficient and creative but overly rule-driven
and inflexible.
Often mocked and hated by those inside and outside of group.
In the future there will be larger bureaucratic organizations, but workers will
be more equal and collectivist.
Characteristics of bureaucracy (ideal type of Weber)
division of labor (specification)
hierarchy of authority
impersonality in hiring
formality in operation (formal rules)
Consequences of bureaucracy
It increases efficiency, but only when tasks are stable and routine
It requires professional leaders
It centralizes power and control
Weaknesses (disadvantages) of Bureaucracy
Individual problems are not taken care of
Depersonalization is promoted
Contradiction often occurs (e.g. Catch 22, Joseph Heller and credit card)
Chapter 8: Deviance and Control
Chapter Eight
Deviance and Control
What is Deviance?
Any act that violates a norm (expectations of majority)
What is deviant to some is not deviant to others
Varies from one historical period to another
Varies from one place to another
Whether an act is deviant depends on public consensus
Examples of Deviance
Criminal deviance —involves violating a criminal law
homicide
robbery
Rape
Drug use
prostitution
Noncriminal deviance—
homophobia
using pornography
mental disorder
staying single
Atheism
Not wearing a ring when married
Corporate Crime
Crimes committed by company officials without
the
use of overt
force.
Effect on victims
is
not easily traceable.
e.g. price
fixing;
violation of
environmental regulations
Society is relatively indifferent
Further Functions of Deviance/Crimes in Society
Providing jobs for law-abiding citizens
Informing the young of the right and the wrong
Keeping certain industries in business
Keeping families intact
Functionalist Theories
Merton: Anomie and strain theory
Hirschi: Social control theory (Temptation and social
bonds) The white collar crime not well explained.
Further on Symbolic Interactionism
Differential association theory: Prisons as crime universities
Labeling theory: Explains how secondary deviance develops
Social Diversity in Deviance
African Americans are more likely to be arrested for serious
crimes
higher incidence of poverty and broken homes caused by racism
Deviance is mostly a male activity
women are socialized to be less aggressive and are subjected to greater
parental control
A Global Analysis
Homicide is generally more likely to occur in poor countries than wealthy ones.
Prostitution is a fast-growing global industry.
Suicide is more common in modern societies than traditional ones.
Crime rates in USA: Hypothetical causes
1. gun availability
2. heterogeneity: race, religion,
wealth, etc.
3. polarization and inequality
4. drugs
5. legal system (freedom, democracy)
6. individualism (catching too many criminals and
freedom jeopardy)
7. modernization
Three ways suggested by Jeffrey Reiman (1990)
1. decrimilization of drug
use
2. reduce polarization
3. control handguns
Chapter 9 and Chapter 10: Stratification and Social
Class
Chapters Nine and 10
U.S. and Global Stratification
The Basis (Major Roots) of Stratification
Social stratification—a system in which groups of people are divided into
layers according to their:
wealth—the U.S. income inequality is the greatest in the industrialized world
power—the ability to control others behavior (associated with wealth)
prestige—subjective, how an individual is perceived by others
Power
The resource theory of power (definition of power)
Resource
Valued
The Principle of the least interest
Stratification
Functionalist: Universal and necessary
Conflict theory: Encouraging less privileged people to commit crimes
Statuses and Stratification
Ascribed statuses: gender, age, race, ethnics, etc.
Achieved statuses: social class and so on
Master-Slave Systems
Slavery—some people are held in servitude on someone else’s property.
Most slaves were poor, ethnic groups
Today, slavery is outlawed in virtually all societies.
Debt bondage—some families are forced to work in fruitless efforts to repay
debts (found in parts of India, Pakistan and Peru).
The Caste System
A rigid system in which positions are ascribed and
fixed.
People must marry within caste and rarely move to another caste.
The Indian caste system is based on the Hindu belief that a person’s caste
reflects the moral quality of his/her actions in a past life.
A Class System
An open system in which peoples’ positions are
achieved and interchangeable.
Skills and education enable people to be socially mobile.
There are fluid boundaries between classes.
Economic development affects social inequality.
Multi-cultural Societies
Racial-ethnic minorities generally have less money, power and prestige .
Discrimination hurts all individuals and families.
Ethnicity largely determines a person’s class.
The U.S. Class Structure
How do we know who is in which class?
Reputational model—asking people to rank others
Subjective model—asking people to rank themselves
Objective method—identifying classes through analysis of income, occupation,
and education
Upward or Downward Mobility
Structural mobility—people can move up or down the social ladder depending on
changes in society (e.g. declining manufacturing base, globalization,
immigration).
Individual mobility—social mobility dependent on a person’s personal
achievement. Race, gender, access to education, and individual opportunities
play a part.
Global stratification
In the social system called global stratification some
nations are in higher or lower classes.
The consequences are poverty, inequality, child exploitation, and slavery.
Chapter 12: Race and Ethnicity
Chapter Eight
Race and Ethnicity
Social stratification foundations
Class – classism
Race – racism
Gender – sexism
Age -- ageism
Race
Race—a group with inherited physical or biological characteristics that
distinguishes it from other groups.
No “pure” race exists
Sociologists tend to define race as a social rather than a biological
phenomenon
Therefore, race is a group of people who are perceived by society to be
biologically different from others.
Ethnicity
Ethnic group—people who identify with one another on the basis of common
ancestry and cultural or religious heritage, and do not necessarily have
distinguishable physical characteristics.
They share a “feeling” that they are a distinct people.
These cultural traits are passed on from one generation to the next.
Minorities
Minority groups—people who are subjected to prejudice and discrimination.
Not necessarily a small percentage of the population (e.g. South Africa).
Dominant groups—have the greatest power, most privileges, and highest social
status, e.g. people of English descent in the U.S.
Native Americans
Two centuries ago, native Americans numbered 10 million. Today, they number
about 2 million. Half live on 314 reservations.
Their unemployment and poverty rates are much higher than average
.
In the last 15 years, Native Americans have revived their traditions and gained
more self-determination but still have a long way to go to overcome two
centuries of oppression.
African Americans
After centuries of oppression and slavery, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 finally
put an end to segregation and paved the way for improvement in African
Americans lives.
Despite the gains, they continue be worse off in housing and economic
conditions.
Social Class is now becoming more important than race in determining the life
chances of African Americans.
Hispanic Americans
Today, Latinos are the largest minority group in the U.S.
Mexican Americans form the largest group.
The Spanish language and Roman Catholic religion are unifying forces.
Generally, Hispanics are worse off than whites and blacks in educational
attainment, and they primarily work in low-pay jobs.
Young U.S.-born Hispanics are breaking that trend .
Asian Americans
Today, Asian Americans are the fastest growing minority in the U.S.
Have faced terrible discrimination in the past.
Compared with whites, Asian Americans are more likely to graduate from college
and have higher family income (especially Chinese and Japanese Americans).
Often stereotyped as the model minority.
Other groups
Jewish Americans—the most successful minority. Perceived as hard-working,
family-oriented, and friendly.
Came to the US to escape religious prejudice an
persecution
In danger of losing identity due to inter-faith marriages and falling birth
rates.
Anti-Semitism in the United States
European Americans—mostly white; dominate U.S. society.
Causes of Prejudice and Discrimination
Scapegoating—prejudice is the result of frustration, and scapegoats become
targets of blame.
Socialization—if our parents, teachers, and media are prejudiced we are likely
to follow their lead.
Economic—racism created a huge supply of cheap labor bringing profits to the
dominant group.
Political—involves maintaining power for the dominant group.
The US is now the least racist white-majority society in the world.
Affirmative Action
Is based on the recognition of the existence of
institutional discrimination.
Requires employers to make special efforts to recruit qualified minorities.
Has been successful for African Americans.
Some see it as reverse discrimination.