Study Guide for Exam 1
Sociology 100: Introduction to Sociology
Zhang Jie, Ph.D.
Department of Sociology
SUNY College at Buffalo
716-878-6425
zhangj@bscmail.buffalostate.edu
http://faculty.buffalostate.edu/zhangj

Chapter One: The Essence of Sociology

Why do we need to take sociology?
Understanding social structure and human behavior
Understanding self and others
Preparing for a better life for oneself
Preparing for the job market

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The Essence of Sociology
Sociology - More than Common Sense
Sociology offers factually supported ideas based on sociological research.
Sociologists have special tools for looking at human behavior.
Sociology suggests that we can know ourselves better by studying others.

Sciences
Natural Sciences (simple, objective)
Physics, biology, math, chemistry, medicine, etc.
(Values, ideas, beliefs not often involved)

Social Sciences (Complex, subjective)
Psychology, anthropology, political science, economy, history, sociology, etc.
(Values, ideas, beliefs often involved)

The Sociological Imagination
To understand human behavior, sociologists look “from the outside” at individuals.
Sociologists examine the impact of social forces on individuals.
Social forces include: friends, family, customs, beliefs, and politics.

The Development of Sociology
Sociology is a very new discipline.
It emerged during the nineteenth century.
It grew out of upheaval during the Industrial Revolution.
The American and French Revolutions encouraged new thought.
Scientists began applying the scientific method to real world problems.

Comte - “The Father of Sociology”
Comte coined the term “sociology.”
He argued that reliance on superstition and speculation was inadequate in understanding society.
He envisioned a science of society.
Comte believed that sociology would guide society in a peaceful, orderly “evolution.”

Spencer “Social Darwinism”
Spencer thought  family, religion, government are all parts of one organism—society.
Society corrects its own problems— “survival of the fittest”
Spencer believed that governments should leave social problems alone. “Laissez- Faire.”
Society will evolve to become better naturally.

Karl Marx “Father of Communism”
Marx stated that all human history is marked by class conflict.
Marx believed that economic systems determine beliefs and values.
Marx urged people not to let society evolve but to change it.
The struggle between the classes would end in revolution.

Emile Durkheim “Father of Positivism”
Pioneered the systematic application of scientific principles to sociology.
First to use statistical methods to test hypotheses.   
Studied suicide.
Found that a social force which impacted suicide was social integration—the degree to which people are tied to a group.

Max Weber “Father of Symbolic Interactionism”
Verstehen
Objective study not sufficient
subjective or sympathetic understanding  needed; based on empathy and imagination)

Functionalist Perspective
Society is made up of interdependent parts that perform functions for society as a whole.
Society is held together by social consensus—the majority agree on what would be good for everybody.
Social change is seen as harmful or “dysfunctional.”

Functionalism
Durkheim, Spencer, Merton
All that exist must be functional
Critique: Overlooks the negative aspects of society
Illustrations: family, education, religion, poverty, crime, prostitution, etc.
Manifest and latent functions

Conflict Perspective
Portrays society as always changing and marked by conflict.
Emphasizes that different groups compete with each other for scarce resources.
e.g.: men and women; one religious group or another.

Assumptions of Conflict
Scarcity of resources
Inequality
Self-interestedness

Conflict Theory
Marx, Mills
Power struggle
Economic classes, the key for development
No stability, no interdependence
Always changing
Critique: Over emphasizing the negative aspects of society

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
A micro view of society.
People assign meanings to each other’s words and actions.
Our response to a person’s actions is determined by our subjective interpretation of that action.
Behavior is fluid and always changing.

Symbolic Interactionism
Weber, Mead, Cooley
Directs our attention to an individual’s everyday activities and interaction
People act according to their subjective interpretation of environment (symbols)
People respond to interpretation of symbols instead of physical object
People change behaviors because of the change of interpretations

Scientific Research
Variables (dependent vs. independent)
Operational definitions
Correlations
Causal relations

Correlations
Positive 
Negative                  
Curvilinear                  
Zero
                   
Causal Relations
Two Requirements (2 tests)
Preceding
No third variable

Major Research Methods
Survey
Observation
Experiment
Analysis of existing data

Surveys
Ask questions about opinions, beliefs, and behavior.
Use self-administered questionnaires or personal interviews,

You need to select a sample—the target group you  want to study.
Participant Observation
Participant observation—the researcher takes part in the group they are studying.
Tearoom Trade
Detached observation—the  researcher  observes as an uninvolved outsider, from a distance.
Ethic problems

Analysis of existing data
Census data
ICPSR
NORC
GSS
Police department records

Chapter Two: Society and Culture

Society’s Building Blocks

Culture - a Design for Living
Culture—the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and material objects that are passed from one generation to the next.
Material culture—the material objects that distinguish a group of people.
Non-material culture—a group’s way of thinking and doing.

Knowledge and Belief
Culture helps us develop certain knowledge and beliefs about what goes on around us.
Knowledge—objective facts, like science
Beliefs—subjective and unverifiable

Norms and Values
Norms—written and unwritten rules to control a society’s behavior. Society enforces these norms through sanctions. 
Values—socially shared ideas about what is good and desirable in life. We are likely to abide by norms if we believe in their value.

Folkways and Mores
Folkways—weak norms that specify expectations about proper behavior
If someone does not follow a folkway, we may raise our eyebrows but not send them to jail.
Mores—norms that constitute demands on our behavior.
Mores are often turned into laws.
If there is no normative support the laws are hard to enforce (e.g. teenage drinking).

Language
Culture can not exist without symbols—a word, gesture, music, etc.

U.S. Cultural Values
American values in Comparison with other cultures in the world
1. individualism (in comparison with collectivism)
2. privacy
3. being fair
4. competition (kindergarten, Chinese group work)
5. human rights: democracy and freedom
6. money-oriented (money talks)
7. respect the young (Chinese men, boat, wife, mother, collapsed, whom to rescue)
8. religion: ancestors and socialization
9. patriotism
10. tolerance of other culture and people (melting pot)
11. instant interest: immediate enjoyment, consumption,  material comfort
12. external conformity: emphasizing agreement and avoid disagreement
13. romance
    #1 is the most important values in American society

Cultural Universals
Food-getting technology
Housing
Language
Art
Incest taboos, cooking, medicine plus 60 others

Increasing Cultural Conflict
Differences between cultures are real and basic (e.g. language)
World is shrinking, increasing interaction between people
Economic modernization is destroying local traditions
Western ideas often conflict with Islamic and other cultures

Ethnocentrism v. Cultural Relativism
Ethnocentrism—the attitude that one’s own culture is superior to those of other peoples.
It can be the glue that holds society together but can lead to violence.
Cultural relativism —the belief that culture must be understood on its own terms.
Counteracts ethnocentrism
Can be beneficial for U.S. businesses

Chapter Three: Socialization

The process in which a person adapts him/herself to society or melts into society; The society transmits its social values for the members to function properly
Example:
    a new born baby to the world
    a foreigner to a new country
    a stranger to a new group

Nature v. Nurture
How many of our characteristics come from “nature” (what we inherit) and how many from “nurture” (what we learn)?
Most social scientists think intelligence is learned from the social environment.
Nature sets limits on what we can achieve; socialization plays a role in what we do achieve.

Behaviorism: Social Learning Theory
Povlov, Watson, Skinner

Conditioning
    Classical (from S to R)
    Operant (from R to S)

Learning How to Feel
Parents, teachers, friends, TV, all socialize children to identify feelings.
Socialization teaches us to learn the logic of emotions.
Children also learn how to manage their emotions .

Learning How to be Normal
Sigmund Freud (1856-1936) proposed that normal personality develops through a series of stages in childhood
Personality consists of three elements:
(1) id—inborn drives, pleasure-seeking
(2) ego—balances the id, rational
(3) superego—the conscience, moral
The ego advises the id to obey the superego

Freudianism
Oedipus complex
Electra complex

Critiques of Freudianism
Not testable
His own experience

Agents of Socialization
The Family
The School
The Peer Group
The Mass Media

A Global Analysis