Following is an annotated set of teaching notes for an introduction to research methods. Updated Fall 2008
A public is a group of people who
face a similar situation
recognize the consequences
seek to deal with the situation
--John Dewey, philosopher of sociology
A public is ...
- Identifiable
- Homogenous
- Important to the organization
- Large enough to matter
- Reachable
A general public is a logical impossibility because it does not refer to a group of people, as defined above. Instead, speak about populations, but any identification of publics must be specific
A public is a group within a population that has mutual concerns and consequences vis-a-vis the organization
A market is a type of public, and a segment within the population that can help the organization achieve its goals through an exchange of goods and money
An audience is an aggregation of individual who share the use of a particular channel of communication
Consequences create publics
Linkage is a sociological concept that identifies a pattern of relationships between an organization and its publics within interdependent or interpenetrating systems
Every organization is moving toward equilibrium, with a continuing series of actions and reactions. This perennial adjustment creates a dialectical pattern of social change
-- Peter Blau, sociologist
Types of Linkages
1. Enabling Linkages
2. Functional Linkages (input / output)
3. Normative Linkages
4. Diffused Linkages
-- Milton Esman (researcher studying Agency for International Development)
1. Customers - publics who receive the output of the organization, either directly or indirectly
2. Producers - publics who create the output of the organization
3. Enablers - publics who establish the climate and generate support for the organization
4. Limiters - publics who limit the work of the organization
Examples of publics within each category of linkages
Customers
Occasional / Regular
Competitive / Loyal
By age, ethnicity, spending potential, or other variable
Current / Potential / Former
Producers
Employees / Volunteers
Veteran / Novice
Line / Staff
Management / Nonmanagement
Supervisory / Staff / Maintenance / Production / Uniformed
Management / Union
Families / Retirees
Investors / Donors
Current / Potential / Former
Enablers
Community Leaders (government, professional, business, union, educational, religious, ethnic...)
Organizations (service, professional, religious, cultural, political, environmental, activist, etc...)
Regulators (industry, association, regulatory agencies, accreditation bodies...)
Professional experts, consultants, analysts
Government Bodies
Town, city, county, state, federal, international
Elective, appointive
Legislative, executive, judicial
Staff, advisory, committee, department
Diplomatic
Military / Civilian
Media (local, state, regional, national, international
Specialized (professional, financial, consumer, religious, ethnic, trade, advocacy, academic...)
By availability (genera, limited, restricted)
Print/ Broadcast / Computer
Print (newspaper, magazine, newsletter)
Newspapers (Daily / nondaily; metropolitan / community)
Broadcast (television, radio)
Television (broadcast / cable; commercial / public)
Radio (AM / FM, commercial / public
Computer (news groups, web sites...)
Limiters
Competitors
Opponents
Activists
Nonpublic
- have nothing in common
- no consequences between organization and group of people
PR Activity: Monitor
Latent Public
- face a similar situation
- unaware of consequences
PR Activity: Plan for communication
Apathetic Public
- face a similar situation
- don't care; consequences not perceived as important
PR Activity: Monitor
Aware Public
- face a situation
- perceive it as relevant
- not organized or active on the issue
PR Activity: Initiate proactive communication
Active Public
- face a situation
- perceive it as relevant
- organized for action
Active publics may be active on all issues, on popular issues, or on single issues
PR Activity: Engage in reactive communication
The more a public...
- recognizes a situation
- perceives it as relevant
- feels able to affect it
... the more the public will appreciate and participate in communication
Purpose: To explain when and how people communicate
And when communication aimed at people is likely to be effective
Publics can be understood
by measuring how members of publics perceive situations
in which they are affected by organizational consequences
Communication behavior is affected by three conditions:
Problem Recognition - the extent to which people detect a problem
Constraint Recognition - the extent to which people identify obstacles to act on the problem
Level of Involvement - The extent to which people feel connected to an issue
For additional information on the theory, see Managing Public Relations, Grunig & Hunt
Re: Issue
- wants, interests, needs
- level of awareness
- level of involvement
- level of organization or activity
- recognition of constraints
- potential development
Re: Organization
- knowledge about organization
- perceptions
- expectations
Re: Communication
- information patterns (active or passive)
- opinion leaders
- media-use habits